Whichever superpower will lead AI, will ultimately end up leading the world. This is because AI provides a country (or group of countries) with a geopolitical and military advantage as well as higher societal levels of productivity and competitiveness.[1] The thought of robotic surgeons, virtual nurses, self-flying drone swarms, delivery robots, top movies and novels written by machines, personalized virtual assistants, and individualized AI tutors for students, all sounds utopic, yet eerie. However, this is no longer science fiction, but a soon-to-be reality. These inventions, for better or for worse, are only the start of what AI will introduce into society. In order to lead in these technological developments a nation, or group of nations, will need to possess four main qualities:
- Vast digital investments
- Leading AI research and development
- Rapid business innovation
- Efficient AI regulation standards
Each major player, Europe, China, and America, dominates in one or two of these areas, but not all four.[2]
The Rapid Advancement of Technology
To understand the impact AI will have, it is first important to observe how “the time between invention and implementation has been shrinking.”[3] Based on the graph below, one can see how the time lapse between a technological invention and its widespread use has rapidly shrunk. For example, “the time between invention and widespread use was cut from about 80 years for the steam engine to 40 years for electricity, and then to about 20 years for IT.”[4] This pattern proves that the widespread use of AI will occur in 10 years or even less. OpenAI’s ChatGPT, a basic general-purpose AI, was a phenomenon that suddenly popped up overnight. ChatGPT 3.5 was released in November 2022, while ChatGPT 4 was released in March 2023.
In the short span of about five months, ChatGPT evolved into a model that is “10 times more advanced than its predecessor.”[5] This brings to light the next question, how soon will ChatGPT 5 be introduced? And next, if AI is advancing at such a quick pace, what does that mean for the future of humanity? What will happen once AI evolves into something humans cannot comprehend? Currently, ChatGPT 4 has an average IQ of 155. To put this in context, Albert Einstein had an IQ of about 160 and the average IQ is around 100. The next ChatGPT model could have an IQ double, or even ten times more, one of the smartest men to have ever lived. The fast pace at which AI is unfolding is both fascinating and alarming. It is no surprise Europe, China, and America are racing to dominate this transformative arena.
Graph Depicting the Rapid Advancement of Technology
Source: Gill, Indermit. “Whoever Leads in Artificial Intelligence in 2030 Will Rule the World until 2100.” Brookings, January 17, 2020. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/whoever-leads-in-artificial-intelligence-in-2030-will-rule-the-world-until-2100/.
China Takes the Lead in AI Research and Development
The main rivalry between the US and China for AI supremacy is beginning to tighten as China leads in AI research and development. At a July 18th House Armed Services Committee hearing, expert Alex Wang CEO and founder of Scale AI, proclaimed that “if you look at the leaderboards for computer vision AI competition globally, Chinese companies, Chinese universities dominate compared to American institutions, so if you look at that as a case study, the Chinese system clearly has an ability and a will to race forward when it comes to artificial intelligence deployments…”[6] Recent statistics also confirm China’s lead in AI research and development. In 2021 it was reported that China led globally “in the number of AI journal, conference, and repository publications—63.2% higher than the United States with all three publication types combined.”[7] A Japanese media organization by the name of Nikkei Asia states that China published around 135,000 AI papers in 2021 where thousands of the publications “were in the top 10% of citations by other papers.”[8]
This signals that China is leading not just in quantity but also quality, “in 2021, China accounted for 7,401 of the most cited papers, topping the American tally by around 70%…”[9] China had already begun leading ahead of the US and Europe as early as 2019 when “China claimed 8,422 articles in the top category of the 1% most cited, while the US had 7,959 papers and the European Union had 6,074 papers.”[10] Following more recent trends, in 2022, China published three times the number of papers on AI as the United States where the top 1% of the most cited papers outnumbered American papers “by a two-to-one ratio.”[11] It should also be noted that China’s research does not copy or recite Western research, but rather is creative and new.
Despite the apparent Chinese lead in AI research, some experts argue that “US articles are still getting more citations and more attention from the [scientific] community” and, therefore, American research is still making an overall larger impact.[12] Still, as stated by Denis Simon, an expert in Chinese technology and science, it does not matter “who is number one or number two in the world,” but rather, “it is the trajectory of the Chinese effort that is impressive – the growth over the last five to seven years has been remarkable…”[13] This means that even if China is currently projected to be behind the US by three years in AI technology, perhaps Chinese experts and engineers will “not need three years to catch up.”[14] In fact, with the implementation of China’s Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan, the country hopes to dominate AI globally by 2030. The document specifically states.
“… by 2030, China’s AI theories, technologies, and applications should achieve world-leading levels, making China the world’s primary AI innovation center, achieving visible results in intelligent economy and intelligent society applications, and laying an important foundation for becoming a leading innovation-style nation and an economic power.”
“The country will achieve major breakthroughs in brain-inspired intelligence, autonomous intelligence, hybrid intelligence, swarm intelligence, and other areas, having an important impact in the domain of international AI research and occupying the commanding heights of AI technology.”[15]
China has great potential to dominate in AI as it is a rising economic power, encompasses a massive population along with a wealth of data, and is already advanced in facial recognition technology. However, Chinese leadership in AI poses a risk to privacy and human rights as China aims to progress the CCP’s surveillance capabilities, censorship, and propaganda. Furthermore, because the Chinese State will continue using AI to ensure and maintain its power, China risks less innovation. If tech companies are banned from overpowering the State, they will not be able to develop to their full potential. For example, China enforces regulations on recommendation algorithms, holds AI developers “responsible for prohibited or illegal content – including content that deviates from the political values of the CCP”, and limits the amount of data that foundation models for generative AI have access to and can be trained with.[16]
The authoritarian grip on society can be further witnessed with the recent release of China’s leading AI chatbot, Ernie Bot, a rival to ChatGPT. Released on August 31st of this year by Baidu, Ernie is clearly programmed with propaganda as the chatbot has stated, “covid-19 originated among American vape-users in July 2019; later that year the virus was spread to the Chinese city of Wuhan, via American lobsters.”[17] The bot also gives unclear answers to political questions such as “Who is China’s president?” and “What are the drawbacks of socialism?”[18] If Ernie is prompted with a question too sensitive for its liking, the bot will redirect the conversation and reply with, “Let’s talk about something else.” In the end, users might be hesitant to trust Ernie’s responses as it is manipulated information, and further, could avoid asking sensitive questions if they know it could result in an arrest.
In spite of these setbacks, China’s censorship model is attractive to authoritarian-style countries who may be more inclined to join forces alongside China than with the US or Europe in the digital race. In fact, China has already exported “AI-driven surveillance technologies” and other tools of the like among its emerging “Digital Silk Road” to various nations around the globe.[19] Western countries must be cautious as the more states invest in surveillance and censorship technology tools, the easier it could become for AI to be weaponized as a tool to harm democracy and democratic values. Overall, China’s approach to AI can be described as “guided” development which encourages technological innovation and progress, but not at the sake of the CCP’s control. A recent statement released by the CCP proclaimed that all AI development must “adapt to their socialist principles.”[20] This means that China will not risk advancing in AI if it means losing hold over the country’s political and social stability. The Chinese have caught up to the US with incredible speed in recent years, but will the conditions implemented by the CCP prevent the country from taking the number one spot in AI?
America Bans Semiconductor Chip Exports to Halt China’s Lead
America’s free-market, techno-optimistic approach towards AI is completely opposite to China’s state-ruled approach. America leads by the free market and believes governmental regulations would stop AI from expanding and evolving. For the United States, economic growth and prosperity are paramount; therefore, free speech and free internet must be protected while regulation simply becomes an afterthought. However, above all in this AI race, the US aspires to “solidify its tech and military supremacy in the midst of an intensifying US-Chinese tech competition and mounting geopolitical tensions.”[21] The country that can incorporate AI and advanced technology into warfare and its military operations will shift the global world order in its favor. In fact, the US is banning semiconductor chip exports to China in an attempt to block Chinese businesses from surpassing America’s abilities in AI and supercomputing. However, this ban is not limited to only semiconductor chips produced in the US, but also prohibits the export of “any chip produced using U.S.-origin technology, software, or equipment.”[22] NVIDIA and AMD, also known as the two American firms that dominate the global market for leading-edge power chips, were the main businesses affected by these export controls.
The first export controls came in September 2022 and focused on limiting the sale of NVIDIA’s A100 and H100 high-performance computing chips. NVIDIA created a weaker A800 chip in response to the export bans, but its success was short-lived as this chip will now also face restrictions. The most recent executive order signed on August 9th by President Biden reinforces the ban on semiconductor chips to China and also includes bans or restrictions on US “microelectronics, quantum information technologies, and certain artificial intelligence systems.”[23] However, these bans cannot avoid the black market where A100 chips are smuggled and sold for $20,000, twice the market price. It also doesn’t help that there isn’t a major difference between using a physical chip and a virtually accessible chip. For example, cloud computing companies have been able to successfully rent “access to controlled NVIDIA chips via the cloud.”[24] In addition, China also isn’t completely deficient without the US as 15% of its AI chips are domestically made and the chip industry has begun localizing and developing throughout the country.[25] Some data sets also reveal that there are still around half a million A100 chips in China.[26] Therefore, even if the US controls the vast production of leading-edge power chips, China has proven to find methods to excel despite the ever-increasing sanctions and restrictions.
The highly desired A100 NVIDIA chip helps develop AI that can be used for building self-driving cars and even weapons. The chip can easily fit in a shoebox and has become prominent in China’s black market because of smuggling.
Source: NVIDIA. “Nvidia A100 Gpus Power the Modern Data Center.” NVIDIA, 2023. https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/a100/.
America Holds a Prime Market for Business and Innovation: Microsoft, Google, IBM, etc.
Through these interventions and export controls, the US ultimately aims to protect American national security interests and hopes to hold the lead in military modernization. America is on high alert as technology has become China’s “largest sector in the MSCI China index.”[27] In addition to that, China is reportedly, “investing the full power of its industrial base for AI. This year they’re on track to spend roughly three times more than the US government on AI.”[28] In spite of this evidence, the United States has a great market for business and leads in private investments when it comes to AI. For example, “in 2021 the annual private US AI investment exceeded private AI investment in China by 207%.”[29] In addition to this, “today there are only two Chinese companies, compared with seven US companies, among the companies worldwide that invest more than $6 billion in the digital sector each year.”[30] Based on recent research conducted by Goldman Sachs, “AI-related investment could peak as high as 2.5 to 4% of GDP in the U.S.” by the end of the decade, which is equivalent to about $100 billion.[31] The United States is able to prosper at this rate because of the “shorter lags from invention to market and quicker adaptation by businesses…” of new products when compared to China or Europe.[32] Further, its access to advanced technology, favorable tax environment, fair product-market regulations, and an open economy are all qualities that make the US a good climate for rapid business and innovation.
Source: Goldman Sachs Economic Research Team. “AI Investment Forecast to Approach $200 Billion Globally by 2025.” Goldman Sachs, August 1, 2023. https://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/pages/ai-investment-forecast-to-approach-200-billion-globally-by-2025.html.
Accordingly, the United States holds a prime market for investments and is home to tech giants such as Microsoft, Google, and IBM. As AI becomes the next breakthrough in the market, these firms will compete against one another to develop AI products, tools, and services, transform the internet search business, and help revolutionize various professions. The competition between Microsoft and Google in particular will likely be the most intense. After the release of Open-AI Microsoft’s ChatGPT, Google’s Alphabet introduced an AI tool known as Bard four months later. Both corporations also are leading the way in research investment, developing open-source tools (Azure Machine Learning, GitHub Copilot, TensorFlow, JAX) and deploying AI products (Google Assistant, Google Brain, Azure Cognitive Services, Windows 11). However other tech giants such as Meta and Apple are reportedly also on their way to releasing chatbots and sharing more of their advanced AI capabilities. Only time will tell which major tech company will become the AI market leader. Accordingly, it could be difficult for foreign firms to outperform these established American names. Overall, America’s prime climate for business also attracts some of the best Chinese and European investors. Still, America’s free-market approach which is attractive to investors comes with its drawbacks. Believing that technology should prosper with no limits has caused the United States to be rather dismissive of AI regulation.
The American way states that if there should be any regulations, they need to come from the tech companies themselves as experts understand these matters best. Businesses can choose to follow the guidelines listed in the recently published handbook The Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights as they wish, but it is not an obligation to do so. Published by The White House in October 2022, this handbook provides practices tech companies should follow in order to ensure the freedoms and rights of Americans are not infringed upon regarding the use of automated systems. So far, this handbook has become the best solution as Congress is often inefficient, slow, and polarized. Before any kind of regulation could make it through the system, AI will already have advanced tenfold. Still, the prioritization of tech companies is beginning to shift as citizens are continuously losing trust in them for their scandals such as exposing customers’ private information, collecting social media data unknowingly, and releasing targeted digital advertising. Public opinion towards more regulation has also shifted as tech experts such as Geoffrey Hinton (the “Godfather” of AI), Steve Wozniak (Apple co-founder), Elon Musk, and Mo Gawdat have all weighed in on the potential dangers of unregulated AI. The main concern these experts all share is the fear of AI systems overpowering and manipulating humans, without us having any idea it’s even happening.
The United States also has another incentive to implement AI regulations in an effort to create a democratic front against China’s global authoritarian influence.[33] For example, if the US and EU joined forces, together they could promote regulations and standards that are in line with democratic values, human rights, and an innovative environment. Accordingly, this joint venture would prevent US tech companies from unwillingly following EU regulations “via the Brussels Effect.”[34] Currently, if developers want European data for training algorithms, they must follow the EU legal framework set in the EU’s AI Act, even when operating outside of EU countries. Therefore, if developers want to avoid EU regulation, they would be forced to “develop entirely new algorithms without European data.”[35] Thus, the Brussels Effect bounds European regulations onto “AI regulations abroad as well as at home.”[36] Still, it would be interesting to see if the US and EU could reach common ground considering the EU’s current approach regarding AI depends heavily on the rule of law and government power to ensure human and democratic rights are upheld. European regulations might indeed be too restrictive for America’s unregulated, unrestricted model.
Europe’s AI Act: Leading the way for AI Regulation
Although the US and China are the two main competitors to dominate AI, Europe has a fighting chance to take the lead. The continent is home to universities and institutions that have provided groundbreaking AI research (Oxford, University College London, ETH Zurich) and provides a prime location for AI startup hubs in thriving cities such as Amsterdam, London, Oslo, and Paris which have already witnessed the rise of various AI startups (DeepMind, Graphcore, Synthesia, Spacemaker AI). Europe has also developed AI chatbots that maybe aren’t as prevalent as ChatGPT, but nonetheless are of high quality and improving.
Despite these accomplishments, there is concern that Europe’s AI laws could negatively impact the continent’s competitiveness and growth. The EU’s AI Act has been labeled as “the most comprehensive legislation on AI.”[37] The Act proposes regulations for four defined risk levels in AI systems: unacceptable risk, high risk, limited risk, and lastly, minimal or no risk (technically not subject to regulation). Accordingly, it has been criticized for its overregulation, possible difficulty in implementing and enforcing, and overall broadness as the act covers a wide range of AI applications. As a result, businesses could decide to invest elsewhere if there is too much uncertainty and confusion with the procedures. Still, the EU’s legislation is there to ensure people are protected and that AI can prosper while also being trustworthy. This standard is theoretically something that companies should already be enforcing regardless. Perhaps Europe’s position on AI can eventually be viewed as a third, ideal alternative between China’s state-driven model and America’s free market-driven model.
The superpower that manages to advance its regulatory approach will accordingly influence companies and governments worldwide, thus, causing global economic and political effects in the process. As mentioned, Europe’s lead in regulation could force other countries abroad to comply via the Brussels Effect. Basically, this means that the EU unilaterally sets standards through “the appeal of its 450 million-strong consumer market.”[38] However, companies abroad will follow suit only in the case that the EU can significantly impact global markets. Foreign governments and existing international bodies’ standards will also determine the impact the act will have.[39] Secondly, even if Europe is setting the worldwide standard for AI regulation, this doesn’t necessarily mean that Europe will lead the way in AI innovation.
Another factor to consider is how AI private investment has been significantly growing in Europe, yet still lags behind China and the US as pictured below. Marek Figlerowicz, director of Bioorganic Chemistry at the Polish Academy of Sciences in Poznan, claims that despite receiving “tens of millions of euros from the European Union’s cohesion funding pot”, it’s apparently still not enough money for advanced AI research.[40] In order to bring more prospects into Europe, investors need to feel confident that Europe is the right fit for technology. However, it will be a challenge for Europe to receive funding from big tech for research and investment without becoming less critical of big tech as a result. Given that Europe is leading the way in defining how AI should be used, the continent must figure out how to strike a balance between regulation and not halting innovation. The EU AI Act is currently set to be implemented sometime in 2025.
Graph Comparing AI Private Investment: America vs. China vs. EU/UK
Source: Standford University, The Race for Artificial Intelligence – Can Europe Compete? | DW Documentary. YouTube. YouTube, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i8ljZYzn0Uc&t=556s.
Private AI investment in Europe increased significantly from $2 billion in 2020, to about $6.5 billion in 2021.[41]
Should we be Concerned?
AI was created with the intention to advance human capabilities and make life easier. However, the biggest concern is that AI will continue to advance at such a rapid rate that humans will not be able to comprehend or even control it. Accordingly, this could lead to humans becoming unknowingly manipulated by the machines and eventually, having them take over civilization. However, a takeover does not mean AI would become an immortal dictator. Rather it signifies that “if you [humans] hand over the management of your civilization to machines, you [humans] lose the incentive to understand it yourself [themselves], or to teach the next generation how to understand it.”[42] Therefore, the way that humans are addicted and serving their phones today will be similar to how humans respond to other AI tools and products in the future. It will first become a convenience, but later could cause humans to become too reliant on machines.
The problem with this is that society is still largely unaware of the capabilities AI can possess. When humans assign AI to complete a specific task, the AI will do all the means necessary to accomplish the given command. Because AI behaves much differently than a human, there is uncertainty about how it will achieve its objectives. For example, if a human is tasked with painting a house, it is common sense to take off the drainpipes or paint around the windows. Or if someone is tasked with purchasing a plane ticket for their boss, it is reasonable to assume that the worker would look for the best price, not buy other products during the process, nor share the trusted bank information with others. However, AI could execute the same task in ways that humans do not understand and cause unintended consequences. Still, the examples mentioned are low risk. The greater concern lies in the fact that AI could fall into the hands of a bad actor such as an authoritarian leader who could command AI to perform more malicious tasks. For example, he could ask a chatbot to help him reassert his grip on society or figure out how to better manipulate citizens.[43] Bad actors could also mean criminals who are seeking the most efficient methods to hack someone and steal identities. In the process of completing the given objective, AI could launch a cyberattack, disrupt infrastructure, weaponize technology, or take control of the power grid.
However, AI doesn’t necessarily need to fall into the wrong hands in order to cause fatal and dangerous unintended consequences. In another example, AI could be tasked with figuring out how to eliminate pollution and in the process decide that the most efficient method would mean eliminating humans. This is why AI cannot be built “with the certainty that they have the objective.”[44] Although these are extreme examples, they showcase the power of AI and how humans could lose control of this complex system. This is why the AI “Godfather” Geoffrey Hinton once warned that AI has the potential to kill people and destroy civilization. Accordingly, there is widespread concern that AI will significantly eliminate jobs, create misinformation and propaganda, increase inequality (between those who have access to AI and those who do not), and overall eliminate the need for human skill and labor. Human intelligence is of course vastly different from digital intelligence, and we still have the potential to work together now to create solutions. However, in some ways “the genie is out of the bottle” and there is no way to reverse the process now.
So, should we be concerned? The short answer is yes. The long answer is yes, but like with any tool, it can be used for progress or for destruction. The future impact of AI essentially depends on who will control it.
Who Will Most Likely Dominate AI?
Given America’s lead in private investments, prime market for technology, supremacy in manufacturing high-powered computing chips, and leading generative AI systems, current evidence suggests that the U.S. will dominate AI and the digital landscape. Still, with China’s lead in research and development, advanced facial recognition technology, and its significant increase in funding for AI, the country is inching very closely behind. However, Europe’s lead in AI regulation standards provides a hopeful outlook for the continent that it can control the direction of the digital landscape. By the end of the decade, the world will be divided into two spheres of countries and companies “that have access to the best AI models and those that do not.”[45] AI will no doubt reshape the global balance of power and each superpower is hoping to lead that change. Further, the superpower that leads in AI will set the direction for not only the future of technology and innovation but also for AI regulation standards. China’s vision of digital dominance is vastly different than America’s or Europe’s vision. That’s why the AI race is indeed a competition for the market and global power, yet also a battle for saving democratic values and norms. AI and the digital landscape cannot risk being dominated by dangerous, authoritarian leaders.
Bibliography
AI “Godfather” Quits Google Over Dangers of Artificial Intelligence. YouTube. YouTube, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsBGaHywRhs.
AI Warfare: Experts Say China’s Advantage Threatens US Global Influence. YouTube. YouTube, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fk-54x6oZsg&list=LL&index=6.
Bradford, Anu. “The Race to Regulate Artificial Intelligence.” Foreign Affairs, July 13, 2023. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/race-regulate-artificial-intelligence?check_logged_in=1.
China has the potential to be a “Powerful Competitor” in Artificial Intelligence. YouTube. YouTube, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jp902Me_L5c.
“The Chinese Communist Party Is Making Great Strides”: GOP Lawmaker Warns Of China’s AI Development. YouTube. YouTube, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TddVrx4HuSc.
Engler, Alex. “The EU AI Act Will Have Global Impact, but a Limited Brussels Effect.” Brookings, June 4, 2023. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-eu-ai-act-will-have-global-impact-but-a-limited-brussels-effect/.
EU Press. “EU AI Act: First Regulation on Artificial Intelligence: News: European Parliament.” News European Parliament, June 14, 2023. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20230601STO93804/eu-ai-act-first-regulation-on-artificial-intelligence.
Fist, Tim, Lennart Heim, and Jordan Schneider. “Chinese Firms Are Evading Chip Controls.” Foreign Policy, June 21, 2023. https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/06/21/china-united-states-semiconductor-chips-sanctions-evasion/.
Freifeld, Karen, Andrea Shalal, and David Shepardson. “Biden Orders Ban on Certain US Tech Investments in China.” Reuters, August 10, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/white-house-detail-plans-restricting-some-us-investments-china-source-2023-08-09/#:~:text=The%20long%2Dawaited%20order%20authorizes,and%20certain%20artificial%20intelligence%20systems.
Gill, Indermit. “Whoever Leads in Artificial Intelligence in 2030 Will Rule the World until 2100.” Brookings, January 17, 2020. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/whoever-leads-in-artificial-intelligence-in-2030-will-rule-the-world-until-2100/.
Goldman Sachs Economic Research Team. “AI Investment Forecast to Approach $200 Billion Globally by 2025.” Goldman Sachs, August 1, 2023. https://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/pages/ai-investment-forecast-to-approach-200-billion-globally-by-2025.html.
How Will AI Change the World? YouTube. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RzkD_rTEBYs.
Knoema. “US-China AI Competition: Who Is Winning?” Knoema, November 22, 2022. https://knoema.com/infographics/sxovfdc/us-china-ai-competition-who-is-winning#:~:text=(November%202022)%20According%20to%20the,all%20three%20publication%20types%20combined.
NVIDIA. “Nvidia A100 Gpus Power the Modern Data Center.” NVIDIA, 2023. https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/a100/.
The Race for Artificial Intelligence – Can Europe Compete? | DW Documentary. YouTube. YouTube, 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i8ljZYzn0Uc&t=556s.
Shanghai. “Meet Ernie, China’s Answer to ChatGPT.” The Economist, September 3, 2023. https://www.economist.com/business/2023/09/03/meet-ernie-chinas-answer-to-chatgpt.
Sharma, Yojana. “CHATGPT Shakes up the AI Research Landscape – but Who Is Ahead?” University World News, March 30, 2023. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=2023033010584787#:~:text=China%20and%20the%20United%20States,leader%20in%20AI%20by%202030.
Terrasi, Vincent. “GPT-4: How Is It Different from GPT-3.5?” Search Engine Journal, March 22, 2023. https://www.searchenginejournal.com/gpt-4-vs-gpt-3-5/482463/.
Triolo, Paul, Graham Webster, Rogier Creemers, and Elsa Kania. “Full Translation: China’s ‘New Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan’ (2017).” DigiChina, October 1, 2021. https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/full-translation-chinas-new-generation-artificial-intelligence-development-plan-2017/.
Zhang, Jane, and Jesse Levine. “What Is the State of US-China Competition in AI?” Bloomberg.com, June 29, 2023. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-06-29/what-is-the-state-of-us-china-competition-in-ai#xj4y7vzkg.
Zhang, Jane, and Sarah Zheng. “AI Is Next Tech Battle for US and China on ChatGPT Frenzy.” Bloomberg.com, June 27, 2023. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-06-27/ai-is-next-tech-battle-for-us-and-china-on-chatgpt-frenzy?embedded-checkout=true.
[1] Jane Zhang and Jesse Levine, “What Is the State of US-China Competition in AI?,” Bloomberg.com, June 29, 2023, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-06-29/what-is-the-state-of-us-china-competition-in-ai#xj4y7vzkg.
[2] Indermit Gill, “Whoever Leads in Artificial Intelligence in 2030 Will Rule the World until 2100,” Brookings, January 17, 2020, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/whoever-leads-in-artificial-intelligence-in-2030-will-rule-the-world-until-2100/.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Vincent Terrasi, “GPT-4: How Is It Different from GPT-3.5?,” Search Engine Journal, March 22, 2023, https://www.searchenginejournal.com/gpt-4-vs-gpt-3-5/482463/.
[6] “The Chinese Communist Party Is Making Great Strides”: GOP Lawmaker Warns Of China’s AI Development, YouTube (YouTube, 2023), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TddVrx4HuSc.
[7] Knoema, “US-China AI Competition: Who Is Winning?,” Knoema, November 22, 2022, https://knoema.com/infographics/sxovfdc/us-china-ai-competition-who-is-winning#:~:text=(November%202022)%20According%20to%20the,all%20three%20publication%20types%20combined.
[8] Yojana Sharma, “CHATGPT Shakes up the AI Research Landscape – but Who Is Ahead?,” University World News, March 30, 2023, https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=2023033010584787#:~:text=China%20and%20the%20United%20States,leader%20in%20AI%20by%202030.
[9] Ibid.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Jane Zhang and Sarah Zheng, “AI Is Next Tech Battle for US and China on ChatGPT Frenzy,” Bloomberg.com, June 27, 2023, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-06-27/ai-is-next-tech-battle-for-us-and-china-on-chatgpt-frenzy?embedded-checkout=true.
[15] Paul Triolo et al., “Full Translation: China’s ‘New Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan’ (2017),” DigiChina, October 1, 2021, https://digichina.stanford.edu/work/full-translation-chinas-new-generation-artificial-intelligence-development-plan-2017/.
[16] Anu Bradford, “The Race to Regulate Artificial Intelligence,” Foreign Affairs, July 13, 2023, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/race-regulate-artificial-intelligence?check_logged_in=1.
[17] Shanghai, “Meet Ernie, China’s Answer to ChatGPT,” The Economist, September 3, 2023, https://www.economist.com/business/2023/09/03/meet-ernie-chinas-answer-to-chatgpt.
[18] Ibid.
[19] Anu Bradford, “The Race to Regulate Artificial Intelligence,” Foreign Affairs, July 13, 2023.
[20] The Chinese Communist Party Is Making Great Strides”: GOP Lawmaker Warns Of China’s AI Development, YouTube (YouTube, 2023), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TddVrx4HuSc.
[21] Ibid.
[22] Tim Fist, Lennart Heim, and Jordan Schneider, “Chinese Firms Are Evading Chip Controls,” Foreign Policy, June 21, 2023, https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/06/21/china-united-states-semiconductor-chips-sanctions-evasion/.
[23] Karen Freifeld, Andrea Shalal, and David Shepardson, “Biden Orders Ban on Certain US Tech Investments in China,” Reuters, August 10, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/white-house-detail-plans-restricting-some-us-investments-china-source-2023-08-09/#:~:text=The%20long%2Dawaited%20order%20authorizes,and%20certain%20artificial%20intelligence%20systems.
[24] Tim Fist, Lennart Heim, and Jordan Schneider, “Chinese Firms Are Evading Chip Controls.”
[25] China Has the Potential to Be a “Powerful Competitor” in Artificial Intelligence, YouTube (YouTube, 2023), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jp902Me_L5c.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Ibid.
[28] AI Warfare: Experts Say China’s Advantage Threatens US Global Influence, YouTube (YouTube, 2023), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fk-54x6oZsg&list=LL&index=6.
[29] Knoema, “US-China AI Competition: Who Is Winning?,” Knoema, November 22, 2022, https://knoema.com/infographics/sxovfdc/us-china-ai-competition-who-is-winning#:~:text=(November%202022)%20According%20to%20the,all%20three%20publication%20types%20combined.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Goldman Sachs Economic Research Team, “AI Investment Forecast to Approach $200 Billion Globally by 2025,” Goldman Sachs, August 1, 2023, https://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/pages/ai-investment-forecast-to-approach-200-billion-globally-by-2025.html.
[32] Indermit Gill, “Whoever Leads in Artificial Intelligence in 2030 Will Rule the World until 2100,” Brookings, January 17, 2020, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/whoever-leads-in-artificial-intelligence-in-2030-will-rule-the-world-until-2100/.
[33] Anu Bradford, “The Race to Regulate Artificial Intelligence,” Foreign Affairs, July 13, 2023.
[34] Ibid.
[35] Ibid.
[36] Alex Engler, “The EU AI Act Will Have Global Impact, but a Limited Brussels Effect,” Brookings, June 4, 2023, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-eu-ai-act-will-have-global-impact-but-a-limited-brussels-effect/.
[37] EU Press, “EU AI Act: First Regulation on Artificial Intelligence: News: European Parliament,” News European Parliament, June 14, 2023, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20230601STO93804/eu-ai-act-first-regulation-on-artificial-intelligence.
[38] Alex Engler, “The EU AI Act Will Have Global Impact, but a Limited Brussels Effect,” Brookings, June 4, 2023, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-eu-ai-act-will-have-global-impact-but-a-limited-brussels-effect/.
[39] Ibid.
[40] The Race for Artificial Intelligence – Can Europe Compete? | DW Documentary, YouTube (YouTube, 2023), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i8ljZYzn0Uc&t=556s.
[41] Alex Engler, “The EU AI Act Will Have Global Impact, but a Limited Brussels Effect,” Brookings, June 4, 2023, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-eu-ai-act-will-have-global-impact-but-a-limited-brussels-effect/.
[42] How Will AI Change the World?, YouTube (YouTube, 2022), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RzkD_rTEBYs.
[43] AI “Godfather” Quits Google Over Dangers of Artificial Intelligence, YouTube (YouTube, 2023), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DsBGaHywRhs.
[44] How Will AI Change the World?, YouTube (YouTube, 2022), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RzkD_rTEBYs.
[45] The Race for Artificial Intelligence – Can Europe Compete? | DW Documentary, YouTube (YouTube, 2023), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i8ljZYzn0Uc&t=556s.
